Standard Candles - Measuring Cosmic Distances:

Among the various questions we are often asked about, the one that comes to the forefront of the mind deals with how we accurately estimate how distant objects truly are from us. It"s a difficult task all together since humans are inherently incapable of truly grasping how large the distance that separates the sun from Pluto or the Oort cloud is (not to mention our crappy depth perception) -- let alone trying to wrap your mind around the 4.37 light-year gap separating our solar system and its closest neighbors in the Alpha Centauri system. Then, we must contemplate the vastness of the universe outside of our peripheral view.. like, all of the planetary systems across our galaxy at large and of our local group -- a region of space containing more than 54 galaxies. We know that much more exists beyond our local group, which brings us to the point of this article... how exactly are distances measured? Lets take a look:

First up, Cepheid variable stars: http://www.fromquarkstoquasars.com/measuring-cosmic-distances/

Image Credit: NASA/JPL/Cal-tech

The 50 Best Pictures of Science in Action - 2013

2013 was a great year for science. It was also a great year for science-related photography. For your viewing pleasure, FQTQ presents some of the best pictures of 2013.

Note: This article contains not only pictures, but gifs and youtube links as well. To avoid them from taking forever to load, we"ve divided them up into several pages.

http://www.fromquarkstoquasars.com/2013-in-pictures-page-1/

"That" Pluto Controversy (You Know The One)

If you are like me, then when you went to school, you probably learned about the nine planets in our solar system. Then, tragically, in 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) set the official classification of what a planet was; and Pluto didn’t make the cut. Now, we have a controversy surrounding our favorite frozen rock. But why is this a big deal?

See: http://www.fromquarkstoquasars.com/that-pluto-controversy/

Image Credit: NASA

10 Amazing Facts About Life, Planets, Stars, and the Universe:

As we all know, the human race lives on a small blue dot, orbiting a yellow-orange star, in a galaxy that we call the Milky Way. This galaxy is some 100,000 light years across, and our closest neighbor (Andromeda) is about 2.5 million light-years away. And while we have been all over the surface of the Earth, we have never visited our sun, have yet to trek across the vast distances of our galaxy, and we still have quite a ways to go before we make it to Andromeda. In fact, we haven"t even finished exploring our own small planet. Ultimately, there is a lot that we don"t know about the cosmos, but what we do know is pretty awesome.

Check out 10 amazing facts at:
http://www.fromquarkstoquasars.com/10-amazing-facts-about-life-planets-stars-and-the-universe/

Image via NASA

Making the Moon Habitable

Being the brightest and most prominent feature of the night sky, Earth"s Moon has long been the source of relaxation, inspiration and wonderment. Romanticized through poetry and demonized through Science-Fiction likenesses, it still leaves modern society in awe as much as it did in the primitive stages of human culture as Anthropology study has revealed.

Furthering this fascination, ever since the late Neil Armstrong laid his footprints in the electrically charged and abrasive dust on the lunar surface, humanity has had the desire and ambition to further itself - to be a multi-planetary species. Through very popular movies, such as Aliens, Red Planet and Total Recall, we have the idea of terraformation - that is, turning extraterrestrial worlds into suitable planets for humanity to thrive upon.

But how does the moon fit into the equation? See: http://www.fromquarkstoquasars.com/making-the-moon-habitable/

Larger Image: http://www.infiniteunknown.net/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/earth_and_moon.jpg

The Sun"s Magnetic Field is Expected to Flip Soon. The End of Earth?

According to NASA, over the course of the next few months, the sun"s magnetic field will flip -- just as it does every 11 years (like clockwork). This event will not be catastrophic but it does sound kind of daunting, so what exactly happens when the sun"s magnetic field flips?

Find out here: http://www.fromquarkstoquasars.com/the-suns-magnetic-field-is-expected-to-flip-soon-the-end-of-earth/

Image Credit: Karen Teramura [UH IfA]

Lake Vostok: Life in one of the most Inhospitable Places on Earth:

Located on the seemingly inhospitable continent of Antarctica (a place with the lowest recorded temperature on the Earth at -89 degrees Celsius), lies a subglacial lake that is 160 miles wide and 30 miles across. This lake has been dubbed Lake Vostok. It is believed that the lake formed some 20 million years ago. Isolated from the rest of the world for at LEAST 100 000 years, Lake Vostok was one of the last untouched places on this globe.

The lake presents itself as an analog for the study of both extremophilic microbial life (and possibly larger organisms) and evolutionary isolation. This inhospitable environment parallels some environments that we think might exist elsewhere in the solar system – either in the subsurface of Mars or on icy moons like Enceladus or even Europa. Ultimately, the search for life on other planets could start here on Earth at Lake Vostok.

Find out how here: http://www.fromquarkstoquasars.com/lake-vostok-life-in-one-of-the-most-inhospitable-places-on-earth/

Image Credit: Nicolle Rager-Fuller / NSF

Iapetus: The Lollipop Moon

Saturn’s Moon Iapetus has a unique feature which was, until recently, a complete mystery.

Running along its equator is this weird ridge of mountains. The mountains run exactly along the equator, are perfectly straight, and---so far---haven’t shown up like this on any other planet or moon. They’re also the only such mountains anywhere on Iapetus’ surface (reaching as high as 63,000 feet tall). (Giving this strange moon the propensity for ice avalanches!) Pretty weird!

To learn more about this peculiar feature, see: http://www.fromquarkstoquasars.com/iapetus-the-lollipop-moon/

Image Credit: NASA/JPL

New Research Suggests Our Sun Won"t Form a Planetary Nebula

You have probably heard that the Sun will turn into a red giant in about 5 billion years. And you probably know that this will result in not-so-fun times for any being still on planet Earth. As it transitions from a main sequence star into a red giant, the outer layers of the Sun will expand across the solar system. When this happens, our life-giving star will turn into an object of utter destruction. The Sun will expand beyond Mercury. It will expand beyond Venus. It will sweep across the entirety of the inner solar system in a mere 5 million years. When it finally stops its expansion, the searing tips of the solar surface will rest beyond the bounds of Earth’s orbit. In short: if we aren’t knocked out of the solar system as the Sun expands, or moved into a larger orbit as it loses mass...we will be consumed.

But what happens to the Sun after it becomes a red giant? We have a pretty good handle on the fate of our own world...but what about the Sun itself?

We once thought it would turn into a planetary nebula, but we might be wrong on that one.

Read More: http://www.fromquarkstoquasars.com/new-research-suggests-our-sun-wont-form-a-planetary-nebula/

Image Credit: ESO/S. Steinhöfel

Astronomy Picture of the Day: 12/20/13 - Dust Devil Trails on Mars

When most of us think of the Red Planet, we picture a dead planet, home to a seemingly endless red horizon, chock-full of rock and dust, with the sun appearing as a much smaller point in the sky than the huge, blindingly bright orb we are used to. All of those are true, but Mars is actually much more than that. Images such as this help showcase its true marvels.

The image, taken by the HiRISE camera (belonging to the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter) at around noon (Martian-time), captures one of the most magnificent dust devil trails ever seen on Mars. These storms tend to be unpredictable and can quickly grow from a contained storm, to almost engulf the entire planet in howling wind. (some of the "dust devils," which are essentially miniature tornadoes, can become up to 8 kilometers in height.)

The storms generally occur when warm air rises and cool air sinks, creating horizontal winds that began spinning until they form a vortex. On Mars, we can clearly see the color of the sand (which is actually dark grey beneath the thin film of iron oxide, due to the presence of basalt). The dust devils are known to disrupt the outermost layer, revealing the colorful landscape pictured here.

Sources and Further Reading: http://www.fromquarkstoquasars.com/astronomy-picture-of-the-day-122013-dust-devil-trails-on-mars/

Image Credit: HiRISE, MRO, LPL (U. Arizona), NASA

Astronomy Picture of the Day: 12/19/13 - New Look at Old Vesta Images

The Dawn Spacecraft is a trailblazer in every sense of the term. Over the course of the last few years, it has offered us valuable insight into the inner workings of several non-planetary bodies in our solar system (proving that size doesn"t necessarily always matter). Now, as it makes its way toward Ceres - a dwarf planet that can be found in the asteroid belt (between Mars and Jupiter) - scientists decided to take another look at some of the images it beamed back to Earth during its foray with a large asteroid from 2011 to 2012.

The new look at the original images of Vesta was led by a team of researchers from the Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research. Using the images that were gathered by Dawn"s framing camera, the team analyzed the surface features in unprecedented detail by ascribing specific colors to wavelengths of light noted on Vesta. This granted them with the opportunity to make out details that would not be discernible to the naked eye (In the images, each pixel is representative of 200 feet [60 meters]).

References & Further Reading: http://www.fromquarkstoquasars.com/apod-vesta/

Larger Image: http://www.fromquarkstoquasars.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/vesta.jpg

Astronomy Picture of the Day: 12/15/13 - The Dunes of Noachis Terra

Mars is a treasure trove of beautiful - albeit alien - scenery. The dunes of Noachis Terra, which are found inside an impact crater in the southern landmass, are no exception. This enhanced-color image was taken by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter’s High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment camera – the image itself spans about six-tenths of a mile (or about 1 kilometer).

The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) arrived at the Red Planet on March 10, 2006 and immediately began preparations for its primary mission; to survey the Martian surface and locate landing sites for future missions. The MRO has been instrumental in helping scientists choose these landing sites, as is the case with the Phoenix and Curiosity missions. The orbiter was originally scheduled to operate for two Earth years. However, even after nearly 7 years, this spacecraft is returning amazing data (not to mention, some awesome pictures) of our little red friend.

References & Further Reading: http://www.fromquarkstoquasars.com/astronomy-picture-of-the-day-121513-the-dunes-of-noachis-terra/

Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Univ. of Arizona

If One of Jupiter"s Moons Replaced Our Own...

Life is messy. It is turbulent and chaotic. However, in a world that is constantly evolving, there are a few things that we can rely on -- things that help keep life stable and keep us all sane. First, there is the Sun. It rises each day, giving us the light and energy that we need to survive, and then slowly slips behind the horizon (like clockwork).

The same is true of the Moon. Each night, it silently creeps through the sky; acting as a beacon of light in an increasingly dark world. Then, the sun peeks back up on the horizon, causing the moon"s presence to become less apparent for several hours -- until the cycle starts anew. One thing is for sure.. the moon is much more than a hunk of rock.. it"s a familiar, friendly figure. But what if the Moon wasn"t our moon? Furthermore, what would it be like if the Moon was replaced by another celestial body?

Like, one of Jupiter"s moons: http://www.fromquarkstoquasars.com/if-jupiters-moon-replaced-our-own/

Image Credit: Lights in the Dark: https://www.facebook.com/LightsInTheDark

Astronomy Picture of the Day: 12/14/13 - Close Encounters of the Moon Kind

As Jupiter danced with the Moon on July 15 of last year, European observers had the spectacular chance to watch Jupiter pass behind the lunar disk. Cristian Fattinnanzi managed to capture this beautiful picture -- taken through light cloud cover over Montecassiano, Italy -- as the gas giant reemerged (with its four Galilean moons in tow).

The Galilean moons are names as such because Galileo discovered them while making his observations of our largest planet. The moons, pictured left to right, are Callisto, Ganymede, Io, and Europa; with Jupiter as the centerpiece.

References & Further Reading: http://www.fromquarkstoquasars.com/astronomy-picture-of-the-day-121413-close-encounters-of-the-moon-kind/

Photo credit: Cristian Fattinnanzi

Tidal Stresses - How Gravity Heats Things Up

Our planet is able to sustain warmth because of its atmosphere and its proximity to the Sun. However, as you may know, most of the other planets aren"t so lucky; nearly all of them have rather frigid temperatures.

For example, take a look at moons like Enceladus or Europa. These moons (of Saturn and Jupiter, respectively) are known as "icy moons." As a result of the extreme temperatures, which are hundreds of degrees below zero, both moons have a thick layer of ice many kilometers deep; however, we know that liquid water still exists on them. How can this be?

Find out at:
http://www.fromquarkstoquasars.com/tidal-stresses-how-gravity-heats-things-up/

Image source before editing:
NASA

Get to Know Your Star: Classifying the Universe

We all know scientists like to classify and categorize things, especially in space where everything is unfamiliar. This unfamiliarity makes it hard to convey information accurately. On top of this, there’s a seemingly infinite amount of stars in the universe. Fortunately, astrophysics has come up with a snazzy system to tell them apart.

As we all know, stars are huge, bright spheres of gas spinning through space at incredible speeds. Stars provide the energy which makes (almost) all life on Earth possible. Even in death, stars provide us with life -- giving us the heavy elements necessary for our existence. By sorting out the differing types of stars in the universe we (the science community) can start to observe trends and similarities that will inevitably lead to a better understanding of the universe around us.

To learn just how massive (or tiny) the Sun is, check out:
http://www.fromquarkstoquasars.com/get-to-know-your-star-classifying-the-universe/

Image source:
NASA

Volcanism on Io (Jupiter"s Moon)

If there was a contest for the most un-Earth like world, Io would be one of the top contenders. Without a doubt, the most interesting thing about Io is its huge quantity of active volcanoes. As you can see, this volcanism makes the moon look more like a large ball of cheese (or a terribly unappealing pizza) than an actual world.

Find out just how many volcanoes Io has at:
http://www.fromquarkstoquasars.com/volcanism-on-io-jupiters-moon/

Image source:
NASA

A Rocky Relationship: Is the Moon Leaving the Earth?

It’s comforting to look up at the night sky. The bright stars seem like old familiar friends; the pockmarked Moon is like a steady and unchanging ally. From our perspective on Earth, the universe seems stable and eternal.

Of course, this isn’t how things really are. In reality, our night sky is in a constant state of flux. You’ve probably heard that the Moon and Earth are drifting apart, but will the Moon ever completely leave?

Find out at:
http://www.fromquarkstoquasars.com/a-rocky-relationship-is-the-moon-leaving-the-earth/

Image source:
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery/photogallery-earthmoon.html

Where could we put a Human Settlement besides the Moon and Mars?

So, what other places in the solar system, besides Mars and the Moon, would it be possible to put a human settlement? Well, as it turns out, this is a pretty big question. From where we are sitting, the solar system might seem like a pretty small place. However, there’s an amazing amount of objects that make up our little corner of the universe. Of course, there are the 8 planets. Then there are the 5 known dwarf planets. And there are some 146 natural satellites (moons) in our solar system. On top of all of this, there is the Kupier Belt and the Oort Cloud. Together, these two regions of the solar system could contain more than a trillion objects... Yes, a trillion objects.

The point?

It is nearly impossible to make a comprehensive list of all the potentially habitable bodies in the solar system. And even if I were to make such a list, it would be ridiculously long and you wouldn’t want to read it. Consequently, we will just do a brief overview of the objects that we could live on without stretching the theoretical limits too far.

To learn where we could build settlements in our solar system, see:
http://www.fromquarkstoquasars.com/where-could-we-put-a-human-settlement-besides-the-moon-and-mars/

Image source:
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/index.cfm

Iapetus: The Lollipop Moon

Saturn’s Moon Iapetus has a unique feature which was, until recently, a complete mystery.

Running along its equator is this weird ridge of mountains. The mountains run exactly along the equator, are perfectly straight, and---so far---haven’t shown up like this on any other planet or moon. They’re also the only such mountains anywhere on Iapetus’ surface (reaching as high as 63,000 feet tall). (Giving this strange moon the propensity for ice avalanches!) Pretty weird!

To learn more about this peculiar feature, see: http://www.fromquarkstoquasars.com/iapetus-the-lollipop-moon/